Ukusebenza ngamakhemikhali nama-poliplastiki
Kudala, ikhemistri yayibhekwa njengomqondo we»milingo emnyama«, kanti namuhla siyihlangabeza kuyo yonke indawo, kuhlanganise nasekhaya. Siyazi ukuthi nge»Crnim bikom« noma ezinye izihlanzi singawasha izingubo kalula. Abaningi bayazi ukuthi i-tetraethyl lead inyusa inombolo ye-octane kaphethiloli. Yebo, leyo mininingwane ayimenzi umuntu abe isazi samakhemikhali. Ukuze sisondele kancane ekubeni yiso, ake sazi izisekelo zekhemistri:
Into engahlukaniswa yaba ezinye izinto, ezinezinto ezihlukahlukene, ngezindlela ezilula zomzimba (ukukhetha, ukuhlunga ngesisefo, uzibuthe njll.) ibizwa ngokuthi ingxube. Leyo nto, eyifomu elihlangene ngokuphelele, engakwazi ukuhlukaniswa ngalezo zindlela ezilula zibe izingxenye ezinezinto ezihlukahlukene ibizwa ngokuthi iyinhlanganisela.
Izixube zakhiwa ngamamolekhuli akhiwe ngezinto, ezixhunywe ngezibopho ezithile zamakhemikhali. Lezi zibopho azivumeli ukuba zihlukaniswe kalula. Ukucekelwa phansi, ukuqhekezwa kwalezi zibopho kudinga amandla amakhulu, ukungenelela kwamakhemikhali. Khona-ke ama-molekhuli ahlakazeka abe ama-athomu ayizakhi. Kwakukade kucatshangwa isikhathi eside ukuthi ama-athomu angeke aphinde ahlukaniswe. Kuleli khulu lethu sekugunyazwe umbono wakudala wokuthi ama-athomu akhiwa izinhlayiya eziyisisekelo ezincane kakhulu, ezihlukanayo ngokomthamo nangomthwalo kagesi. Izinhlayiya eziyisisekelo eziyinhloko yiprothoni enomthwalo omuhle, inyutroni engathathi hlangothi kanye ne-electron enomthwalo omubi.
Kuzo zonke izinhlanganisela zalezi 92 izinto zemvelo, kubamba iqhaza kuphela 15 kuya ku 20 izinto.
Isisindo sama-athomu ezakhi silinganiswa ngaleyo ndlela, ngokuwafanisa ukuthi asindile kangaki kunomzimba we-athomu we-hydrogen, isakhi esilula kunazo zonke (ngokwencazelo yakamuva ukusuka ku-1/12 ye-athomu yekhabhoni.
Akukho neyodwa yezakhi engakwazi ukuhlangana nenye into ngamavelu angahleliwe, nganoma yikuphi ubuningi. Ikhono lokubopha i-athomu ye-hydrogen ngamakhemikhali silibheka njengeyunithi eyodwa. Ngakho-ke, i-athomu ye-hydrogen inezivalency eyodwa. I-athomu, eyakha inhlanganisela ne-athomu eyodwa ye-hydrogen, nayo inezivalency eyodwa. Uma into ibopha ama-athomu amabili, amathathu, amane njll. e-hydrogen, khona-ke yona ingeyesibili, yesithathu, yesine njll. ezivalency. I-valency eyisishiyagalombili yiyona valency enkulu kunazo zonke engenzeka yento eyodwa. Nokho, kukhona izinto ezinamavalency amaningi; zona zinezivalency eziguquguqukayo.
Amaqembu ayinhloko ezinhlanganisela angama-inorganic nama-organic compounds. Ezinhlanganisweni ze-organic kukhona ikhabhoni, kanti kuma-inorganic - ngaphandle kwezimo ezimbalwa ezingajwayelekile - ayikho ikhabhoni.
Isizathu sokuba khona kwenani elikhulu lezinto eziphilayo sitholakala ekhonweni lama-athomu ekhabhoni lokubophezela ndawonye, okungukuthi ekwakhekeni kwamaketanga ekhabhoni. (Igama elithi izinto eziphilayo livela embonweni wangaphambili wokuthi zazingakhiqizwa izidalwa eziphilayo kuphela.)
AMA-ACIDS ayizinto eziyingozi ezibhidlizayo ezibangela amanxeba amabi, afana nokusha, esikhunjeni noma esiswini. Singawabona kalula ama-asidi ngosizo lwephepha le-litmus, ngoba i-litmus eluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka iba bomvu ku-asidi. Lapho sisebenza nama-asidi kudingeka izibuko zokuzivikela namagilavu enjoloba. Uma, naphezu kokuqapha, ithonsi le-asidi liwe esikhunjeni sethu - okokuqala kufanele lisulwe ngendwangu eyomile, bese ligezwa ngaphansi kwamanzi agobhozayo futhi ekugcineni imikhondo ye-asidi iyancishiswa ngesisombululo se-soda-bikarboni (slika 1).
ISITHOMBE 1
IZISEKELO ziyimikhiqizo yokusabela kwama-oxide ezinsimbi namanzi. Ama-alkali abizwa ngezisekelo ezincibilika emanzini futhi ezinokugqwala. Ziyabonakala kalula, ngoba isenzo sazo senza i-litmus ebomvu iphenduke eluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka. Ziyizinto ezigqwala kakhulu. Amanxeba avela kuzo aphola kanzima, kunalawo adalwe ama-asidi. Imithetho ye-HZT iyafana neyama-asidi. Рri lapho kulimala isikhumba kufanele sigezwe nge-asidi ehlanjululwe (isibonelo i-acetic acid).
AMASAWOTI akhiwa ngokusabela kwezisekelo nama-asidi. Awadli kancane noma awadli nhlobo isikhumba. Noma kunjalo, lapho kusetshenzwa nosawoti kufanele kuqashelwe, ngoba amanye anobuthi.
Amakhemikhali emakhaya
Kudala kwaziwa, ikakhulukazi ekulondolozweni kwemikhiqizo yokudla.
Izinto zokulondoloza zingahlukaniswa zibe:
1. Izinto ezifanayo ngesikhathi esifanayo zinikeza ukunambitheka futhi zilondoloze imikhiqizo: ushukela, usawoti, uviniga, amafutha, i-citric acid, i-tartaric acid.
2. Izinto zokubulala ama-microorganism: šalitra, glutaminska kiselina, stipsa, krečno mleko, salicil, benzoeva kiselina i natrijum-benzoat.
3. Izinto ezinjengejeli, imibala nezinongo.
Ushukela. Ngokungeza ushukela ongu-55% (ushukela =C12H22O11) kumkhiqizo othile (wama-plamu, ama-raspberry, ama-apricot, amapheya, ama-apula) ngaphandle kokwengeza amanye amakhemikhali siwulondoloze ngokuphelele (slatko). Akunconywa ukufaka ngaphezu kuka-55% ushukela, ngoba ushukela uzokhizikristala. Inani elingaphansi kuka-50% ushukela alulondolozi. Uma kufakwa ushukela ezitsheni zokudla ezine-asidi, kufanele kuphekwe isikhashana nje, ngoba ushukela uyabhidlika.
Usawoti. Usawoti wokupheka (i-sodium chloride, NaCl) nawo unikeza ukunambitheka futhi ngesikhathi esifanayo uyagcina. Ikhono lokulondoloza livela ngenxa yokuba hygroscopic kosawoti (umunca umswakama). Uma inyama ifakwa usawoti, usawoti ubopha inani elithile lamanzi hhayi kuphela enyameni kodwa nasekubaktheriyeni futhi ngaleyo ndlela uyawabhubhisa. Neminye imicroorganism ayikwazi ukuphila ngaphandle kwamanzi.
Ushalitra. (I-potassium nitrate, KNO3). Impuphu emhlophe, enosawoti, ebabayo, ecwebezelayo. Ayinambitheki. Ukuze kulondolozwe 2,5 kg inyama, sincibilikisa 0,5 amagremu e-potassium nitrate ku-100 g wamanzi afudumele. Inyama eqoshiwe imanziswa ngalesi sixazululo. Kufanele kuqashelwe umthamo oqondile, ngoba ngobuningi obukhulu i-potassium shalitra ibaba kakhulu futhi inobuthi.
I-Glutamic acid (i-amino–pyrovic acid, i-amino-glutaric acid, НООС-СН2-СН2–СН(NH)2–СООН iyianino acid etholakala cishe kuwo wonke amaprotheni. Isetshenziswa ekwenzeni izingxube zezinhlobo ezahlukene zamasobho, amasobho amanzi, (Podravka, Knorr njll.), noma ekulondolozeni inyama. Ku-1 kg yenyama kuthathwa 5 g ye-glutamic acid encibilikisiwe.
I-alum emhlophe (i-potassium–aluminium–sulfate, KAl(SO4)2 isetshenziswa esimweni sayo esimsulwa ekulondolozeni, okungukuthi ekuqiniseni isakhiwo sezithelo ezithambile nemifino, ukuze zingabhidliki, zingonakali ngesikhathi sokulondolozwa. Ku-1 kg yezithelo, noma yemifino, kusetshenziswa 1,4 g ye-alum.
Ubisi lwekalika. Lusebenzela ngendlela efanayo ne-alum. 0,5 kg likalika oshisiwe siliqeda ku-5 amalitha amanzi bese siliyeka limi ubusuku obubodwa, sihlise ngokucophelela (sithele cishe u-2/3 wesixazululo esicacile) futhi kulobu bisi lwekalika [Ca(OH)2] sicwilisa izithelo noma imifino kuze kube 15-20 m imizuzu bese ekugcineni siyageza ngamanzi afudumele.
I-asidi kalamula. I-asidi kalamula isakazeke kakhulu embusweni wezitshalo. Itholakala cishe kuzo zonke izithelo (I-asidi ye-oksi–propan–tri-carboxylic, C6H8O7) Amakristalu e-asidi kalamula angenaphunga, angenambala ancibilika emanzini afudumele. Ku-1 kg yezithelo kudingeka 1 kuya ku-2g ye-asidi.
I-asidi ye-tartaric. Ayinambala, ayinaphunga (C4H6O6), usawoti wayo we-potassium utholakala ewayinini. Umphumela wale asidi ufana nowe-asidi ye-citric.
I-acetic acid. Into engenambala, enephunga elibukhali, enamandla kakhulu i-asidi, eyidliwayo (СН3СООН). Isitha esikhulu sesikhutha namagciwane. Ngaphezu kokugxila okuthile, endaweni ene-asidi, amagciwane awakwazi ukuphila. Yingakho i-acetic acid isetshenziswa kakhulu ekulondolozeni. Ezitolo itholakala ngezigxobo ezahlukene (amandla ahlukene). Ukuze 1 kg yomkhiqizo othile kwanele cishe 2-3 desilitha lesixazululo se-10%–nog se-acetic acid. I-acetic acid ibhubhisa inqwaba yezinsimbi (insimbi, i-aluminium, ithusi, i-zinc). Ihlanganiso eyakhiwa nge-acetic acid ngethusi noma nge-zinc inobuthi, ngakho-ke njengokupakisha kwe-acetic acid kungasetshenziswa kuphela isitsha sengilazi, i-ceramic, i-enamel, ipulasitiki noma ukhuni.
I-Salicylic acid iyimpushana emhlophe, eyizinaliti, eyikristalu, engenaphunga (C6H4(OH)COOH). Iwubuthi beselula, ngakho ibhubhisa amagciwane kanye nezinhlamvu. Ngenani elikhulu iwubuthi nasemzimbeni womuntu, ngakho ekulondolozeni isetshenziswa ngamanani amancane, achazwe ngokunembile. Ku-1 kg yezithelo kufakwa kakhulu 0,8 g.
I-benzoic acid iyinto emhlophe, ethambile njengosilika, enezinaliti noma yamapuleti, eyikristalu (Н6С5СООН). Iqeda kahle kakhulu amagciwane namaspore. Ngamanani amakhulu nayo iyingozi emzimbeni, ngakho ku-1 kg yomkhiqizo kwengezwa kuphela 0,5 amagremu.
Izinamathiseli
Inani elikhulu lezinto zokunamathisela zokwenziwa liya ngokuya linqoba imakethe. Kodwa-ke akufanele sidukiswe yigama elithi »ingcina yendawo yonke«. Lezi zinamathiselo zinhle kodwa azisiyo yendawo yonke, zibamba kahle kuphela kwezinye izinto, kwezinye zibambe buthaka.
Sizobalula ezinye zezinto zokunamathisela ezibaluleke kakhulu, ezingatholakala emakethe yasekhaya, sinikeze nencazelo yokuthi yiziphi izinto ezinganamatheliswa kangcono ngalezo zinamatheliso.
I-tutkalo, (eyamathambo, yesikhumba) isetshenziselwa ukunamathisela iphepha, ukhuni, indwangu, i-cellophane, kanye nokunamathisela lezi esikhumbeni nasengilazini.
I-benzol iyisixazululi se-polistirola, noma kunalokho iyinamathelisi yayo. Ngaphandle kokunamathisana kwamapulangwe e-polistirola komunye nomunye, nge-benzol ku-polistirola kunamatheliswa i-plexiglas, i-celluloid ne-cellophane.
Ingilazi yamanzi isetshenziselwa ukunamathisela ingilazi nezinto eziqinile, njengama-bakelite enezindwangu, iphepha, izinsimbi, ubumba ne-ceramic, noma lezi izinto ziqiniswe ndawonye.
Ikloroform iyisixazululi, okungukuthi i-adhesive ye-plexi-glass. I-Plexiglas inganamathiselwa ngekloroform engilazini, ku-ceramic, ku-porcelain, ku-polystyrene nase-celluloid.
I-Boropor inamathisela irabha erabhini, irabha ensimbini, esikhunjeni, engilazini, ku-porcelain, okhunini, nakwifayibha. Futhi isikhumba ensimbini, kuncane engilazini nasezinkunini.
Iglu ye-Oho “yokusetshenziswa okujwayelekile” isetshenziswa ngempumelelo ekunamathiseleni ingilazi, ubumba, ukhuni, i-poliplasta, nensimbi.
IRisopren (irabha yokwenziwa) isetshenziswa ikakhulukazi ekunamathiseni irabha nesikhumba. Iphinde inconywe ekunamathiseni i-linoleum, i-podolit, amapuleti e-vinaz, kanye ne-parquet kukhonkolo.
ISavanol isetshenziselwa ukunamathisela isikhumba, irabha, i-ultrapas, itapisona, izindwangu, izinkuni, i-salonite neshidi lensimbi eliphehliwe.
Neostik un »universal« glue. Ingasetshenziswa ukunamathisela izinto ezahlukene; isikhumba, izinkuni, irabha, izindwangu njll.
I-Drvofix iyinamathelisi yezinkuni, amabhodi ezinkuni (ipaneli, i-iverica njll.) ye-stiropor nezinkuni, ye-parquet emabhakedeni ezinkuni njll.
Teleol (neoprene). Ingcina yokunamathisela isikhumba, iraba, amapulasitiki, izindwangu, ukhuni, izembozo zaphansi ze-PVC njll.
Krautoxin (Kunstsoff aus der Tube). Ingcina enezingxenye ezimbili, lapho lezi zingxenye ezimbili kuqala zixutshwa bese zisetshenziswa phakathi nesigamu sehora. Inamathisela insimbi, itshe, ingilazi, i-porcelain, amapulasitiki aqiniswa ukushisa (bakelite) njll.
Izinamathiselo ze-epoxy, njenge: ARALDIT (eSwitzerland), ЕРON (Shell), EPILOX (Buna-werke), EPORESIT (eHungary), zivela ngezikhathi ezithile emakethe, ngendlela yempushana, unamathiselo, izinti, ama-emulsion. Ziyizinamathiselo ezinhle kakhulu, ikakhulukazi ekunamathiseleni insimbi nensimbi, noma irabha, isikhumba njll.
I-Desmodur, i-Desmoden zingizinamathiseli ze-polyurethane, zisetshenziswa ekunamathiseleni insimbi nerabha, noma insimbi nensimbi.