Kugwira ntchito ndi mankhwala ndi mapulasitiki
Kale chemistry inkaonedwa ngati »matsenga akuda«, koma masiku ano timakumana nayo paliponse, ngakhale m’banja. Tikudziwa kuti ndi »Crnim bikom« kapena ma detergent ena tingatsuke zovala mosavuta. Anthu ambiri amadziwa kuti tetraethyllead imawonjezera nambala ya octane ya petulo. Inde, chidziwitso chimenechi sichimupanga munthu kukhala katswiri wa chemistry. Kuti tikhale tcheru pang’ono m’munda umenewu, tiyeni tidziwe maziko a chemistry:
Chinthu chomwe chingagawidwe kukhala zinthu zina, zokhala ndi makhalidwe osiyanasiyana, pogwiritsa ntchito njira zosavuta zakuthupi (kusankha, kusefa, maginito etc.) chimatchedwa chisakanizo. Icho, chinthu chofanana kwathunthu, chomwe ndi njira zotere zosavuta sichingasiyanitsidwe kukhala zigawo zokhala ndi makhalidwe osiyanasiyana chimatchedwa compound.
Compounds are made up of molecules composed of elements that are bound by certain chemical bonds. These bonds do not allow them to be split apart easily. The destruction, the breaking of these bonds requires greater forces, chemical intervention. Then the molecules break down into elemental atoms. For a long time it was believed that atoms could not be divided further. In our century, the earlier assumption has been confirmed that atoms consist of even smaller elementary particles that differ from one another both in size and in electric charge. The most positively charged elementary particles are the positively charged proton, the neutral neutron and the negative electron.
Muzinthu zonse za 92 zinthu zachilengedwe zimangotenga nawo mbali 15 mpaka 20 zinthu.
Timayeza kulemera kwa ma atomu a zinthu m’njira imeneyi, potero timawafanizira kuti ndi kangati olemera kuposa atomu ya chinthu chopepuka kwambiri, haidrojeni (malinga ndi tanthauzo latsopano kuchokera ku 1/12 ya atomu ya carbon.
Palibe chimodzi mwa zinthu zomwe chingalumikizane ndi chinthu china mulingo uliwonse, ngakhale kuchuluka kotani. Mwayi wa kulumikizana kwa atomu ya haidrojeni timawona ngati wa chinthu chimodzi. Choncho, atomu ya haidrojeni ndi ya valence imodzi. Atomu yomwe imapanga chigwirizano ndi atomu imodzi ya haidrojeni nayo ndi ya valence imodzi. Ngati chinthu chimagwirizanitsa maatomu awiri, atatu, anayi ndi zina zotero a haidrojeni ndiye kuti ndi cha valence ziwiri, zitatu, zinayi ndi zina zotero. Kukhala ndi valence eyiti ndi valence yayikulu kwambiri yomwe chinthu chimodzi chingakhale nayo. Komabe, pali zinthu zokhala ndi ma valence angapo; izi ndi zokhala ndi valence yosinthasintha.
Magulu akulu a mankhwala ndi zinthu zosakhala za organic ndi za organic. M’mankhwala a organic muli kaboni, pamene m’zosakhala za organic - kupatulapo zochepa - palibe kaboni.
Chifukwa cha kukhalapo kwa mankhwala ambiri a organic chili mu mwayi wa ma atomu a kaboni kumangirirana wina ndi mzake, ndiko kuti, pakupanga ma chain a kaboni. (Dzina loti mankhwala a organic limachokera ku kumvetsa kwakale kuti amatha kupangidwa ndi zamoyo zokha.)
MAKHALIDWE OOPSA AMENE AMAYAMBA NDI MA KISINI ndi zinthu zowononga kwambiri zomwe pa khungu kapena m’mimba zimayambitsa mabala aakulu, ofanana ndi kuwotcha. Titha kuzindikira ma kisini mosavuta pogwiritsa ntchito pepala la litimasi, chifukwa litimasi yofiira imasanduka yobiriwira ikakhala m’kisini. Pogwira ntchito ndi ma kisini, magalasi otetezera ndi magolovesi a mphira ndi ofunikira. Ngati, ngakhale kusamala, dontho la kisini ligwera pa khungu lathu — choyamba liyenera kupukutidwa ndi nsalu youma, kenako kutsukidwa pansi pa madzi othamanga ndipo pamapeto pake zotsalira za kisini ziyenera kuthetsedwa ndi yankho la soda-bikarboni (chith. 1).
CHITHUNZI 1
MA BASE ndi zinthu zoyankha zomwe zimapangidwa ndi ma okisaidi a zitsulo ndi madzi. Ma alkali ndi ma base osungunuka m’madzi ndipo amakhala ndi mphamvu yowononga. Zimadziwika mosavuta chifukwa pochita pa pepala la litimasi lofiira limasanduka labuluu. Ndi zinthu zowononga kwambiri. Mabala awo amachira movuta, kuposa mabala omwe amayambitsidwa ndi zidulo. Malamulo a HTZ ndi ofanana ndi a zidulo. Povulala khungu liyenera kutsukidwa ndi asidi wosungunuka (mwachitsanzo asidi wa viniga).
MCHERE amapanga chifukwa cha kuchitirana kwa maziko ndi ma asidi. Amawononga khungu pang’ono kapena konse. Komabe, pogwira ntchito ndi mchere, muyenera kusamala, chifukwa ena ndi oopsa.
Mankhwala m’nyumba
Zadziwika kale kwa nthawi yaitali, makamaka pa kusunga zinthu za chakudya.
Njira zosungira zitha kugawidwa mu:
1. Zinthu zomwe nthawi imodzi zimapatsa kukoma komanso kusunga zinthu: shuga, mchere, viniga, mafuta, asidi ya citric, asidi ya tartaric.
2. Zinthu zophera tizilombo: šalitra, glutamic acid, alum, laimu wamkaka, salicil, benzoic acid ndi sodium benzoate.
3. Zinthu zooneka ngati gelatin, utoto ndi zonunkhira.
Shuga. Ngati tawonjezera shuga wa 55% (shuga =C12H22O11) pa chinthu china (cha ma plamu, rasipiberi, ma aprikoti, peyala, ma apulo) popanda kuwonjezera mankhwala ena, tachisunga kotheratu (slatko). Shuga yoposa 55% si bwino kuwonjezera, chifukwa shuga idzayamba kukristala. Kuchuluka kochepa kuposa 50% shuga sikusunga. Poonjezera shuga ku zakudya zokhala ndi asidi, muyenera kungophika kwa nthawi yochepa, chifukwa shuga imawonongeka.
Mchere. Mchere wa pa khitchini (sodium–chloride, NaCl) umapatsanso kukoma ndipo nthawi yomweyo umasunga. Kutha kusunga kumachokera ku hygroscopicity ya mchere (umayamwa chinyezi). Ngati nyama yaikidwa mchere, mchere umafunga kuchuluka kwake kwa madzi osati kuchokera mu nyama yokha komanso kuchokera mu mabakiteriya, ndipo umawayipitsa. Komanso tizilombo tina sangathe kukhalapo popanda madzi.
Šalitra. (Kalijamu-nitirete, KNO3). Ufa woyera, wa mchere, waukali, wowawa, wa kristalo. Suli ndi acidity kapena alkali. Pofuna kusunga 2,5 kg nyama timasungunula 0,5 magalamu a potaziyamu nitirete mu 100 g ya madzi otentha. Nyama yodulidwa timaisambitsa ndi yankho ili. M’pofunika kusamala ndi mlingo wolondola, chifukwa potaziyamu šalitra ikakhala yochuluka imakhala yowawa kwambiri ndipo ndi poizoni.
Asidi ya glutamic (asidi amino–pyrovic, asidi amino-glutaric, НООС-СН2-СН2–СН(NH)2–СООН ndi amino asidi amene amapezeka pafupifupi m’mapuloteni onse. Amagwiritsidwa ntchito popanga zokometsera za masupu osiyanasiyana, ma supu ndi msuzi (Podravka, Knorr ndi zina), kapena poteteza nyama. Pa 1 kg ya nyama amatenga 5 g ya asidi ya glutamic yosungunuka.
Stipsa (potaziyamu–aluminiyamu–sulfate, KAl(SO4)2 limagwiritsidwa ntchito mu chikhalidwe choyera posungira, kapena cholimbitsa kapangidwe ka zipatso zofewa ndi masamba, kuti zisagwe kapena kusweka pa nthawi ya kusungira. Pa 1 kg ya zipatso, kapena masamba, amagwiritsidwa ntchito 1,4 g ya stipsa.
Mkaka wa laimu. Uli ndi zotsatira zofanana ndi alumu. Ngati tithana ndi 0,5 kg ya laimu wophikidwa mu 5 malita a madzi n’kusiya usiku umodzi, ndiye tikhuthula mosamala (kuthira pafupifupi 2/3 ya yankho loyera) ndipo mu mkaka wa laimu uwu [Ca(OH)2] timanyowetsa zipatso kapena ndiwo zamasamba kwa 15-20 m mphindi ndipo pamapeto pake timatsuka ndi madzi ofunda.
Citric acid. Citric acid yafalikira kwambiri mu ufumu wa zomera. Imapezeka pafupifupi mu chipatso chilichonse (Oksi–propan–trikarbonska kiselina, C6H8O7) Makristalo osanunkhira, opanda mtundu a citric acid amasungunuka m’madzi ofunda. Pa 1 kg wa zipatso pamafunika 1 mpaka 2g ya asidi.
Asidi ya vinyo. Yosawoneka, yopanda fungo (C4H6O6), yomwe mchere wake wa potaziyamu umapezeka mu vinyo. Zochita za asidiyi zili ngati za asidi ya mandimu.
Acetic acid. A colorless, strongly corrosive substance with a pungent odor (СН3СООН). It is a major enemy of mold and bacteria. Above a certain concentration, in an acidic environment, bacteria cannot survive. That is why acetic acid is very often used for preservation. In shops it is found in different concentrations (strengths). For 1 kg of a product, about 2-3 deciliters of a 10% solution of acetic acid are sufficient. Acetic acid destroys a large number of metals (iron, aluminum, copper, zinc). The compound formed with copper or zinc is poisonous, so only a container made of glass, ceramic, enamel, plastic or wood may serve as packaging for acetic acid.
Asidi ya salicylic ndi ufa woyera, wa makristalo ngati singano, wopanda fungo (C6H4(OH)COOH). Ndi poizoni wa m’maselo, motero imawononga mabakiteriya ndi spores. Akakhala ambiri imakhala poizoni kwa thupi la munthu, choncho imagwiritsidwa ntchito posunga zinthu m’miyeso yaying’ono, yodziwika bwino. Pa 1 kg ya zipatso amawonjezedwa kwambiri 0,8 g.
Benzoic acid ndi chinthu choyera, chofewa ngati silika, chooneka ngati singano kapena mbale, chosalimba cha kristalo (Н6С5СООН). Chimawononga kwambiri mabakiteriya ndi spores. M’magawo akulu chimavulazanso thupi, choncho pa 1 kg ya chinthu amawonjezedwa kokha 0,5 magalamu.
Zomatira
Chiwerengero chachikulu cha zomatira zopangidwa m’njira ya mankhwala chikukulirakulira kulanda msika. Komabe tisalolere kutidule mawu akuti »zomatira zapadziko lonse«. Zomatira izi ndi zabwino koma si zapadziko lonse, zimamangirira bwino pa zinthu zina zokha, ndipo pa zina zimangomamatira pang’ono.
Titchula zomatira zingapo zofunika kwambiri, zomwe zingapezeke pamsika wakomweko, ndi cholemba cha kuti ndi zinthu ziti zomwe zomatirazi zingamamatire bwino kwambiri.
Tutkalo, (ya mafupa, ya khungu) imagwiritsidwa ntchito kumatira pepala, mtengo, nsalu, cellophane, komanso kumatira zimenezi pa khungu ndi galasi.
Вenzol ndi chosungunulira cha polystyrene, kapena zomatira zake. Kupatula kumangiriza pamodzi mapanelo a polystyrene, ndi benzol pa polystyrene amamatidwanso pleksiglas, celluloid ndi cellofan.
Madzi galasi amagwiritsidwa ntchito ku glue galasi ndi zinthu zolimba, monga bakelite yokhala ndi nsalu, pepala, zitsulo, porcelaine ndi ceramics, kapena kugwirizanitsa zinthu zimenezi pakati pa izo.
Chloroform is a solvent, that is, an adhesive for plexiglass. Plexiglas can be glued with chloroform to glass, ceramics, porcelain, polystyrene and celluloid.
Boropor imamatitsa mphira ku mphira, mphira ku zitsulo, khungu, galasi, porcelaini, matabwa, nsalu. Komanso khungu ku zitsulo, mofooka ku galasi ndi matabwa.
Chomata cha Oho “universal” chimagwiritsidwa ntchito bwino pomata galasi, poriseleni, nkhuni, poliplasta, zitsulo.
Risopren (rabala yopangidwa) imagwiritsidwa ntchito makamaka pogwira rabala ndi chikopa. Imalimbikitsidwanso kugwiritsa ntchito pophimba linoleum, podolit, mbale za vinaz, ndi kuyika parquet pa konkire.
Savanol amagwiritsidwa ntchito pomata chikopa, mphira, ultrapasi, tapisoni, nsalu, matabwa, salonit ndi chitsulo chochindikizidwa ndi zinki.
Neostik un »yogwiritsa ntchito pa chilichonse« guluu. Ikhoza kugwiritsidwa ntchito pomatira zinthu zosiyanasiyana; chikopa, matabwa, mphira, nsalu ndi zina zotero.
Drvofix ndi guluu wa matabwa, mapanelo a matabwa (panel, iverica ndi zina zotero), polystyrene yowumba ndi matabwa, parquet pa maziko a matabwa ndi zina zotero.
Teleol (neoprene). Guluu wolumikizira khungu, mphira, zinthu zapulasitiki, nsalu, nkhuni, zokutira zapansi za PVC ndi zina zotero.
Krautoxin (Kunstsoff aus der Tube). Guluu wa zigawo ziwiri, pomwe zigawo ziwiri zimayambirira kusakanizidwa ndipo kenako zimagwiritsidwa ntchito pasanathe theka la ola. Amamatira chitsulo, mwala, galasi, porcellain, thermostable poliplasti (bakelite) ndi zina zotero.
Zomatira za epoksi, monga: ARALDIT (Switzerland), ЕРON (Shell), EPILOX (Buna-werke), EPORESIT (Hungary), zimapezeka nthawi zina pamsika, mu mawonekedwe a ufa, phala, timitengo, emulsion. Ndi zomatira zabwino kwambiri, makamaka polumikiza chitsulo ndi chitsulo, kapena mphira, chikopa ndi zina zotero.
Desmodur, desmoden ndi zomatira za polyurethane, zimagwiritsidwa ntchito pomatira chitsulo ndi mphira, kapena chitsulo ndi chitsulo.