Tsamba laukadaulo.

Tsamba la ukadaulo

MSIKA UMODZI, ZOSINTHA ZAMBIRI

Pali zosintha zambiri zimene ziyenera kuganiziridwa posankha dongosolo la stolarija lomwe mudzapereke. Mwa zofunika kwambiri:

ZOFUNA ZA MAKASITOMALA

N’zosakayikitsa kuti m’pofunika kugwirizanitsa zosowa. Ntchito yayikulu si nthawi zonse yosinthika imene imakhudza kwambiri kusankha kwa makasitomala. Mosanyalanyaza kugwirizana ndi zofunikira zochepa zotsimikiziridwa ndi malamulo omwe akugwira ntchito, nthawi zambiri zinthu zina monga kuyenda bwino, kusunga ndalama, ndi zina zotero zingakhale zofunika kwambiri.

KUMENE UKALIPENTALA UKUYIKIDWA

N’zosakayikitsa kuti m’pofunika kugwirizanitsa zosowa. Ntchito yayikulu si nthawi zonse yosinthika imene imakhudza kwambiri kusankha kwa makasitomala. Mosanyalanyaza kugwirizana ndi zofunikira zochepa zotsimikiziridwa ndi malamulo omwe akugwira ntchito, nthawi zambiri zinthu zina monga kuyenda bwino, kusunga ndalama, ndi zina zotero zingakhale zofunika kwambiri.

Madera chimango la nyengo limatsimikizira makhalidwe a stolarija mu mogwirizana ndi udindo umene malamulo amayika.

N’kofunikanso mofanana kuwunika dera la mphepo limene stolarija yawikidwa, zomwe zimakhudza kwambiri kukana mpweya ndi madzi.

MTUNDU WA NYUMBA

Malinga ndi ntchito yomwe nyumbayo yapangidwira, zomveka mtengo wochepetsedwa wa facade ukufunidwa kuchokera ku

kusintha kwa malamulo. Zachidziwikire, pa zinyamuliro- mazenera otsetsereka amene nthawi zambiri amapereka chinthu chofunika

gawo la facade, mtengo wa kuchepetsa phokoso ndi makamaka zofunika.

1. Mbiri ya Mtengo/Mtengo 68/70

[p68_slika][p68_opis][tehnicki_list]

Kuthekera kwa kutumiza kutentha (ndi galasi 4+16arg+4Low-e) Zizindikiro Uf, Ug ndi Uw zikusonyeza kuthekera kwa kutumiza kutentha. Mtengo wochepa umatanthauza kutumiza kutentha kochepa, ndiko kuti kutchinjiriza kwabwino kwambiri.

[toplotna_uw] [toplotna_ug][toplotna_uf][p_uf_slika]

Zonsezi kuthamanga kwa kutentha

Kutentha kutumiza kwa galasi

Kutentha mabowo a profile

Kutumiza kwa kutentha galasi la magawo atatu

Mbiri Drvo/Drvo, gawo la thupi ndi lamba

[p68_dvoprese]

Mbiri Drvo/Drvo, gawo la thupi ndi lamba

[p68_presek2]

Mbiri ya Mtengo/Mtengo, chigawo cha khosilo-khosilo

[p68_presek3]

Mbiri Matabwa/Matabwa, gawo la chitseko cha khonde

[p68_presek4]

2. Mbiri Wood/Wood 78

[p78_slika][p78_opis][p78_tabela]

Kuyendetsa kutentha (ndi galasi 4+12arg+4+12arg+4Low-e) Zizindikiro Uf, Ug ndi Uw zimasonyeza kuyendetsa kutentha. Mtengo wochepa umatanthauza kuyendetsa kochepa, ndiye kusungira bwino kutentha.

Zonsezi kuthamanga kwa kutentha

Kutentha kutumiza kwa galasi

Kutentha mabowo a profile

3. Mbiri Drvo/Drvo 88

[p_slika][p_opis][p_tabela]

Kuyendetsa kutentha (ndi galasi 4+12arg+4+12arg+4Low-e) Zizindikiro Uf, Ug ndi Uw zimasonyeza kuyendetsa kutentha. Mtengo wochepa umatanthauza kuyendetsa kochepa, ndiye kusungira bwino kutentha.

Zonsezi kuthamanga kwa kutentha

Kutentha kutumiza kwa galasi

Kutentha mabowo a profile

4. Mbiri Matabwa/Matabwa 98

[p98_slika][p98_opis][p98_tabela]

Kuyendetsa kutentha (ndi galasi 4+12arg+4+12arg+4Low-e) Zizindikiro Uf, Ug ndi Uw zimasonyeza kuyendetsa kutentha. Mtengo wochepa umatanthauza kuyendetsa kochepa, ndiye kusungira bwino kutentha.

Zonsezi kuthamanga kwa kutentha

Kutentha kutumiza kwa galasi

Kutentha mabowo a profile

5. Mbiri Wood/Wood 104

[p104_slika][p104_opis][p104_tabela]

Kuyendetsa kutentha (ndi galasi 4+12arg+4+12arg+4Low-e) Zizindikiro Uf, Ug ndi Uw zimasonyeza kuyendetsa kutentha. Mtengo wochepa umatanthauza kuyendetsa kochepa, ndiye kusungira bwino kutentha.

[p104_uw_slika][toplotna_provodljivost_ug][toplotna_provodljivost_uf]

Zonsezi kuthamanga kwa kutentha

Kutentha kutumiza kwa galasi

Kutentha mabowo a profile

Mbiri Wood/Wood, zithunzi

[profil_drvodrvo_foto1][profil_drvodrvo_foto2][profil_drvodrvo_foto3]

6. Mbiri ya Wood / Aluminium

[slika_profila] [opis_profila][tehnicka_tabela]

Kuyendetsa kutentha (ndi galasi 4+12arg+4+12arg+4Low-e) Zizindikiro Uf, Ug ndi Uw zimasonyeza kuyendetsa kutentha. Mtengo wochepa umatanthauza kuyendetsa kochepa, ndiye kusungira bwino kutentha.

[p_uw_slika][p_ug_slika][toplotna_provodljivost_uf]

Zonsezi kuthamanga kwa kutentha

Kutentha kutumiza kwa galasi

Kutentha mabowo a profile

Mbiri ya Wood Aluminium, gawo la chimango - tsamba

[profil_drvo_aluminijum_presek_stok_krilo1]

Mbiri ya Wood Aluminium, gawo la chimango - tsamba

[profil_drvo_aluminijum_presek_stok_krilo2]

7. Mbiri Drvo/Drvo, mbiri yopapatiza

[slika_profila_16090][opis_profila_16090][p_dra_tabela]

Kuyendetsa kutentha (ndi galasi 4+12arg+4+12arg+4Low-e) Zizindikiro Uf, Ug ndi Uw zimasonyeza kuyendetsa kutentha. Mtengo wochepa umatanthauza kuyendetsa kochepa, ndiye kusungira bwino kutentha.

[toplotna_provodljivost_uw][toplotna_provodljivost_ug]

Zonsezi kuthamanga kwa kutentha

Kutentha kutumiza kwa galasi

Kutentha mabowo a profile

Profile Wood / Wood, narrow profile

[profil_drvo_uski_profil_slika1] [profil_drvo_uski_profil_slika2]

Mbiri Drvo / Drvo, mbiri yopapatiza (chitsanzo cha zenera)

[profil_drvo_uski_profil_primer_prozora]

8. Mbiri Drvo / Drvo, zenera la kawiri

[slika_profila_16203][opis_profila_16203][p_dd_tabela]

Kuyendetsa kutentha (ndi galasi 4+12arg+4+12arg+4Low-e) Zizindikiro Uf, Ug ndi Uw zimasonyeza kuyendetsa kutentha. Mtengo wochepa umatanthauza kuyendetsa kochepa, ndiye kusungira bwino kutentha.

[toplotna_provodljivost_uw][toplotna_provodljivost_ug_slika] [toplotna_provodljivost_uf_slika]

Zonsezi kuthamanga kwa kutentha

Kutentha kutumiza kwa galasi

Kutentha mabowo a profile

9. Mbiri Wood / Wood, zenera la pawiri Kusiyanasiyana 1

[profil_drvo_dvostruki_prozor_varijanta1]

10. Mbiri Wood / Wood, zenera lawiri Variant 2

[profil_drvo_dvostruki_prozor_varijanta2]

10. Mbiri Mitengo / Mitengo, zenera la awiri Varijanta 3

[profil_drvo_dvostruki_prozor_varijanta3]

10. Mbiri Mtengo / Mtengo, zenera lokhala ndi mapiko awiri Mtundu 4

[profil_drvo_dvostruki_prozor_varijanta4]

10. Profil Drvo / Drvo, zenera lozungulira Variant 5

[profil_drvo_dvostruki_prozor_varijanta5]

10. Mbiri Drvo / Drvo, zenera la kawiri Mtundu 6

[profil_drvo_dvostruki_prozor_varijanta6]

15. Dongosolo la Harmonika

[harmonika_sistem_slika]

16. Njira ya harmonika, poyambira la matabwa

[harmonika_sistem_drveni_prag_slika]

Dongosolo la accordion, pansi pa aluminiyamu

[harmonika_sistem_aluminijumski_prag_slika]

Harmonika sistem, chithunzi cha kutseguka (kuwonera mkati)

[harmonika_sistem_sema_otvaranja_iznutra_slika]

19. Dongosolo lotsetsereka lotseguka/kuphimba

[slika_profila] [opis_profila_text_13639] [tabela_otklopno_klizni]

Kuyendetsa kutentha (ndi galasi 4+12arg+4+12arg+4Low-e) Zizindikiro Uf, Ug ndi Uw zimasonyeza kuyendetsa kutentha. Mtengo wochepa umatanthauza kuyendetsa kochepa, ndiye kusungira bwino kutentha.

[toplotna_provodljivost_uw id=“13639”] [ug id=“13639”] [uf_slika id=“13639”]

Zonsezi kuthamanga kwa kutentha

Kutentha kutumiza kwa galasi

Kutentha mabowo a profile

20. Dongosolo lotsegula ndi kusuntha

[otklopno_klizni_sistem id=“13639”]

21. Dongosolo lotseguka-kutsetsereka, zithunzi za kutseguka

[seme_otvaranja id=“13639”]

22. Dongosolo lokwezera-lotsetsereka

[pk_slika_profila id=“13611”] [podizno_klizni_opis id=“13611”] [tabela_podizno_klizni]

Kuyendetsa kutentha (ndi galasi 4+12arg+4+12arg+4Low-e) Zizindikiro Uf, Ug ndi Uw zimasonyeza kuyendetsa kutentha. Mtengo wochepa umatanthauza kuyendetsa kochepa, ndiye kusungira bwino kutentha.

[toplotna_provodljivost_uw id=“13611”] [ug id=“13611”] [uf_slika id=“13611”]

Zonsezi kuthamanga kwa kutentha

Kutentha kutumiza kwa galasi

Kutentha mabowo a profile

23. Dongosolo lokweza ndi lotsetsereka

[pk_sistem_slika id=“13611”] [pk_slika2 id=“13611”]

24. Khomo lolowera

[uv_slika_profila id=“13601”] [uv_opis_profila id=“13601”] [tabela_ulazna_vrata]

Kuyendetsa kutentha (ndi galasi 4+12arg+4+12arg+4Low-e) Zizindikiro Uf, Ug ndi Uw zimasonyeza kuyendetsa kutentha. Mtengo wochepa umatanthauza kuyendetsa kochepa, ndiye kusungira bwino kutentha.

[toplotna_provodljivost_uw id=“13601”] [ug id=“13601”] [uf_slika id=“13601”]

Zonsezi kuthamanga kwa kutentha

Kutentha kutumiza kwa galasi

Kutentha mabowo a profile

Mitundu ya zitseko zolowera

[uv_model1 id=“13601”] [uv_model2 id=“13601”]

Mitundu ya zitseko zolowera

[uv_model3 id=“13601”]

Mitundu ya zitseko zolowera

[uv_model4 id=“13601”]

25. Mitundu ya ma handle

[uv_kvaka1 id=“13601”]

26. Mitundu ya zogwirira

[uv_kvaka2 id=“13601”] [uv_rucica1 id=“13601”]

27. Mitundu ya zogwirira

[uv_rucica2 id=“13601”] [uv_rucica3 id=“13601”]

28. Mitundu ya ma lever

[uv_rucica4 id=“13601”] [uv_rucica5 id=“13601”]

29. Roletne ndi solomatici

[spoljna_roletna id=“16623”] [unutrasnja_roletna id=“16623”] [uv_solomatik id=“16623”]

30. Ma venetian blinds a matabwa

[drvene_zaluzine_slika id=“13575”] [drvene_zaluzine_opis id=“13575”] [tehnicki_list id=“13575”]

30. Ma venetian blinds a matabwa

[zaluzine_od_drveta_slika1 id=“13575”] [zaluzine_od_drveta_slika2 id=“13575”]

30. Ma venetian blinds a matabwa

[zaluzine_od_drveta_slika3 id=“13575”] [zaluzine_od_drveta_slika4 id=“13575”]

Zipinda zotchingira dzuwa za matabwa, zili ndi mapiko awiri

[zaluzine_od_drveta_slika5 id=“13575”]

Ma shutter a matabwa

[zaluzine_od_drveta_slika6 id=“13575”]

31. Makhalidwe a galasi

Makhalidwe a galasi

Magwiridwe a galasi, mawu

Mfundo Zofunika (EN)

Mawerengedwe ndi mawu a mu lipotili zakhazikitsidwa pa EN 410:2011/EN 673:2011. Miyezo ya magwiridwe yomwe yasonyezedwa pamwambayi ndi miyezo ya pa pakati pa galasi, osaganizira dongosolo la spacer kapena chimango. Solar Factor (g) ndi Secondary Heat Transfer (qi) sizikupezeka pa galasi loyikidwa lopendekera chifukwa muyezo sunafotokoze njira yowerengera ya zinthu zimenezi. Chizindikiro cha KIWA ndi KIWA Validation Report MD - 14/477/GL zimaperekedwa ngati umboni wa kutsimikizika kwa pulogalamu ya Guardian Performance Calculator, mtundu wa pulogalamu 4.1, wochita mawerengedwe a makhalidwe a kuwala ndi a dzuwa a galasi komanso kutumiza kwa kutentha, malinga ndi EN 410:2011 ndi EN 673:2011.

Zinthu za laminated:

The Performance Calculator imalola wogwiritsa ntchito kupanga mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya laminated glass makeups pogwiritsa ntchito ma substrate osiyanasiyana a float glass, coatings ndi interlayer material, kuphatikizapo makeups amene coating imayang’ana ku interlayer. Ndi udindo wa wogwiritsa ntchito kuwunika ngati laminated glass makeup ikukwaniritsa miyezo ya m’madera oyenera ndipo ikutsatira malamulo ogwira ntchito a chitetezo cha laminated glass. Kuphatikiza apo, pamene laminated glass makeup imakhala ndi coating yoyang’ana ku interlayer material, pangakhale kuchepa kwa ntchito ya kutchinjiriza kutentha ndi kusintha kwa mtundu poyerekezera ndi non-embedded coated class.

Zinthu zosawoneka ngati galasi (zowonekera pang’ono kapena zobalalika):

Kuyeza magwiridwe a zinthu zopanda specular (zowoneka mopepuka kapena zofalikira) monga ma interlayer owoneka mopepuka kapena pamwamba pa galasi woyatsidwa ndi asidi, kapena pamwamba wokhala ndi ceramic frit kumachepetsedwa ndi matekinoloje a mayeso omwe alipo panopa. Popeza muyeso umangotenga mwathupi gawo limodzi la kuwala komwe kumatuluka, zotsatira zowerengedwa za magwiridwe zomwe zaperekedwa pano ndipo zimakhazikitsidwa pa muyeso wotere sizikugwirizana ndi mulingo uliwonse (kuphatikizapo EN 410) ndipo zingagwiritsidwe ntchito kokha ngati cholozera chachikulu. Mfundo zenizeni zingasiyane kwambiri kutengera ndondomeko yeniyeni yopangira, komanso mtundu, makulidwe ndi mtundu wa zinthu zopanda specular zomwe zagwiritsidwa ntchito.

Kufotokozera kwa Mawu molingana ndi EN 410:2011/EN 673:2011

Visible Light Transmittance (Tv, %) ndi chiŵerengero cha kuwala komwe kukubwera mu munda wa m’litali wa mawimbi a 380 nm mpaka 780 nm komwe galasi limalola kudutsa.

Ultraviolet (UV) Transmittance (Tuv, %) ndi peresenti ya gawo la UV la cheza cha dzuwa chomwe chagwa, mu m’lifupi wa mafunde a 280 nm mpaka 380 nm, chomwe galasi limadutsa.

Direct Transmittance ya Solar Energy (Te, %) ndi gawo la mphamvu ya dzuwa yomwe ikugwa m’gulu la ma wavelength kuchokera ku 300 nm kufika ku 2500 nm yomwe imadutsa mwachindunji kudzera mu galasi. Visible Light Reflectance Outdoors/Indoor (Rv out/in, %) ndi gawo la kuwala kooneka komwe kakugwa komwe kumawunikidwanso mwachindunji ndi galasi.

Solar Direct Reflectance Outdoors/Indoors (Re out/in, %) ndi peresenti ya mphamvu ya dzuwa yomwe ikagunda galasi imabwezedwa mwachindunji ndi galasilo.

Solar Energy Absorptance (Ae, %) ndi peresenti ya mphamvu ya dzuwa yomwe imamwazidwa ndi galasi.

U-Value (Ug, W/m2 K) ndi parameter ya galasi yomwe imasonyeza kutumizidwa kwa kutentha kudzera m’gawo lapakati la galasi, ndiko kuti popanda zotsatira za m’mphepete, ndipo imasonyeza kuchuluka kokhazikika kwa kuchuluka kwa kutumizidwa kwa kutentha pa kusiyana kwa kutentha pakati pa kutentha kwa chilengedwe mbali iliyonse. Kusiyana kwa kutentha malinga ndi miyezo: ∆T=15K°. The lower

mtengo ukakhala wokulirapo, m’pamenenso mtengo wa kutchinjiriza umakhala waukulu. EN 673 imatanthauza mtengo wokhala ndi 1 malo a decimal.

Mtengowo ukuperekedwanso ndi ma decimal angapo a 3 kuti uthandize pa zambiri.

Solar Factor or Total Solar Energy Transmittance or g-value (g%) ndi kuchuluka kwa ma radiation a dzuwa onse omwe galasi limadutsa.

Shading Coefficient (sc) ndi Solar Factor yogawidwa ndi 0.87. Ndi muyeso wa kuwonjezeka kwa kutentha kwa dzuwa poyerekezera ndi 3 mm clear glass yomwe ili ndi mtengo wotchulidwa wa 1.00.

Secondary Heat Transfer Coefficient (qi) ndi zotsatira za kutumizirana kutentha kudzera mu convection ndi longwave IR-radiation ya gawo limenelo la solar radiation yolowera lomwe lidayamwidwa ndi galasi.

Colour Rendering Index in transmission, D65 (Ra) ndi kusintha kwa mtundu wa chinthu chifukwa cha kuwala komwe kumadutsa mu galasi.

Zolemba zofunika (SR)

Mawerengedwe ndi mawu a mu lipotili zakhazikitsidwa pa muyezo EN 410:2011/EN 673:2011. Miyezo ya magwiridwe yomwe yasonyezedwa pamwambayi ndi miyezo ya pa pakati pa galasi, osaganizira dongosolo la ma spacer kapena chimango. Miyezo ya solar factor (g) ndi secondary heat transfer coefficient (qi) palibe pa galasi loyikidwa lopendekera chifukwa muyezo sunafotokoze njira yowerengera.

Chizindikiro cha KIWA ndi “KIWA Validation Report MD - 14/477/GL” zilipo ngati umboni wa kutsimikizika kwa pulogalamu “Guardian Performance Calculator”, mtundu wa 4.1, pogwiritsa ntchito kuwerengera za makhalidwe a galasi ndi kutayika kwa kutentha malinga ndi miyezo EN 410:2011 ndi EN 673:2011.

Zogulitsa za laminated:

Sikutsimikiziridwa kuti mawonekedwe a laminated omwe apangidwa adzakhala mogwirizana ndi malamulo oyenera a chitetezo pa magalasi a laminated, pokhapokha ngati zalengezedwa momveka bwino kwa zinthu za Guardian. Udindo wa kasitomala ndi kuwunika ngati chinthu chomaliza cha laminated chiyenera kutsimikiziridwa mogwirizana ndi miyezo yoyenera, komanso kuonetsetsa kutsatira malamulo onse a chitetezo pa magalasi a laminated. Chifukwa cha kuphatikiza magalasi okhala ndi coating pamene coatingyo ili itayang’ana ku PVB film (chifukwa cha kulumikizana kwa filimuyi ndi coating), zingachitike (osachepera pa izi) kuchepa kwakukulu kwa magwiridwe a chitetezo pa mitundu ina ya ma coating ndi ma interlayer, kutayika kwa ntchito ya kutchinjiriza kutentha pa pamwamba lomwe likulumikizana ndi filimuyi, kusintha kooneka kwa mtundu ndi kuwonongeka kwina kwa magwiridwe.

Zinthu zosawoneka bwino pang’ono (matt kapena zofalika):

Kuyeza magwiridwe antchito a zinthu zosawonekera bwino monga zigawo zapakati zowonekeratu pang’ono kapena magalasi okokomezedwa ndi asidi, kapena malo okongoletsedwa ndi enamel ya ceramic, kumalephereka ndi ukadaulo woyesera wapano. Chifukwa kuyeza kumangophimba gawo limodzi la sipekitiramu, magwiridwe antchito owerengedwa pano amachokera pa mayesowo omwe atchulidwa pamwambapa, sagwirizana ndi muyezo uliwonse (kuphatikizapo EN 410) ndipo angagwiritsidwe ntchito ngati chizindikiro chabe chachikulu.Zotsatira zenizeni zingasiyane kwambiri chifukwa cha njira yopangira. komanso mtundu, makulidwe ndi mtundu wa zinthu zowoneka pang’ono zomwe zagwiritsidwa ntchito. Kufotokoza kwa mawu malinga ndi EN 410:2011/EN 673:2011

Kudutsa kwa kuwala kowoneka (Tv, %) ndi chiwerengero cha kuwala komwe kuli ndi m’litali wa mafunde pakati pa 380 nm ndi 780 nm komwe kumadutsa kudzera mu galasi.

Ultraviolet (UV) transmisisoni (Tuv, %) ndi peresenti ya kuwala kokhala ndi kutalika kwa mafunde pakati pa 280 nm ndi 380 nm komwe kumadutsa mu galasi ndipo kumachokera ku ma radiation a dzuwa (gawo la UV la ma radiation a dzuwa).

Kudutsa kwachindunji kwa mphamvu ya dzuwa (Te, %) ndi peresenti ya kuwala kokhala ndi utali wa mafunde pakati pa 300 nm ndi 2500 nm komwe kumadutsa mwachindunji kudzera mugalasi.

Kubwerera kwa kuwala kowoneka kuchokera kunja/mkati (Rv out/in, %) ndi kuchuluka kwa kuwala kowoneka komwe kumabwezeredwa mwachindunji kuchokera ku galasi.

Solar direct reflection from outside/inside (Re out/in, %) ndi chiŵerengero cha mphamvu ya dzuwa yomwe imabwezedwa ndi galasi.

Kuyamwa kwa mphamvu ya dzuwa (Ae, %) ndi peresenti ya mphamvu ya dzuwa imene galasi limayamwa. Mtengo wa U (Ug, W/m2 K) umafotokoza kusamutsidwa kwa kutentha kudzera mu gawo lapakati la galasi (glazing), ndiye kuti, kutentha kumbali iliyonse ya galasi, osaganizira zotsatira za m’mphepete

(distancera).Kusiyana kwa kutentha malinga ndi mikhalidwe yokhazikika: ?T=15K°.Pamene mtengo uli wochepa ndiye kuti kutchinjiriza kuli bwino .EN 673 imafotokoza mtengo wokhala ndi malo amodzi a decimal.Mtengo umapezekanso, pa zolinga za chidziwitso, mu mawonekedwe okhala ndi 3 malo a decimal. Solar factor kapena Total solar energy transmission kapena g - value (g%) ndi mphamvu yonse ya dzuwa yomwe imalowa kudzera mu galasi.

Coefficient ya shading (sc) Solar factor yogawidwa ndi 0.87. Solar gain ya galasi loyera la makulidwe a 3 mm ya mtengo woperekedwa 1.00.

Koefficients wa kutumiza kutentha wachiwiri(qi) ndi zotsatira za kutumiza kutentha ndi convection ndi kuwalitsa kwa nthawi yayitali kwa IC kwa gawo la mphamvu yomwe inali itamwedwa kale ndi galasi. Indexi ya kubwezeretsanso mitundu pa kutumiza, D65 (Ra) ndi kusintha kwa mtundu wa chinthu chifukwa cha kudutsa kwa kuwala kudzera mu galasi.

32. Chikalata cha kuchita bwino kwa mphamvu

Satifiketi ya kuchita bwino kwa mphamvu

Satifiketi ya kuchita bwino kwa mphamvu

Satifiketi ya kuchita bwino kwa mphamvu

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